5(c) Agrarian social structure
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 5.1 Indian Village > Agrarian relations in Indian villages
Makhan Jha and B. N. Saraswati on Sacred Complexes — 2018 Paper II
Question · 2018 · Paper II · 20 Marks
Critically examine the contributions of Makhan Jha and B. N. Saraswati to the study of sacred complexes in India.
Model Answer
VAID ICSApproach
- Demand of Question: Critically examine how Makhan Jha and B.N. Saraswati extended the sacred-complex approach beyond its original formulation and enriched the anthropological study of Indian pilgrimage centres.
- Structuring the Response: Briefly establish Vidyarthi’s framework, discuss Jha and Saraswati separately, compare their contributions, and conclude with methodological limitations.
- Key Dimensions to Cover: L.P. Vidyarthi, sacred geography, sacred performances, sacred specialists, Janakpur, Kashi, Great–Little Tradition, pilgrimage and civilizational approach.
Model Answer
Introduction: The concept of Sacred Complex was developed by L.P. Vidyarthi through his study of Hindu Gaya. It viewed a pilgrimage centre as an interaction of sacred geography, sacred performances and sacred specialists, thereby connecting Redfield’s Great and Little Traditions with the study of Indian civilization. Makhan Jha and B.N. Saraswati subsequently extended and refined this approach in different sacred centres.
Conceptual framework
The Sacred Complex consists of three interrelated elements:
Sacred Geography + Sacred Performances + Sacred Specialists = Sacred Complex
- Sacred geography: Shrines, rivers, routes, temples and sacred territories.
- Sacred performances: Pilgrimage, worship, festivals, rituals and offerings.
- Sacred specialists: Priests, ascetics, ritual functionaries and other religious intermediaries.
It permits the sacred centre to be studied as a microcosm of wider civilization.
Contribution of Makhan Jha
- Sacred Complex of Janakpur
Makhan Jha extended the approach through The Sacred Complex in Janakpur (1971), examining Janakpur in Nepal as a centre linked with the Rama-Sita tradition and the wider cultural region of Mithila.
He analysed:
- sacred places and temples;
- pilgrimage routes;
- priests and ascetics;
- festivals;
- ritual performances;
- textual and popular traditions.
Thus:
Local sacred centre → Pilgrimage network → Wider Hindu civilization
- Extension beyond Indian political boundaries
The Janakpur study demonstrated that civilizational processes cannot always be understood through modern national boundaries.
Sacred traditions connect:
India ↔ Nepal ↔ Transregional pilgrimage networks
Jha therefore broadened sacred-complex analysis from a local pilgrimage centre to a regional and transnational civilizational framework.
- Integration of multiple approaches
His Janakpur study explicitly combined:
- anthropological;
- sociological;
- Indological;
- philosophical
perspectives.
This was important because pilgrimage could not be understood through participant observation alone; textual traditions and historical meanings also required attention.
- Comparative sacred-centre studies
Jha subsequently extended sacred-complex analysis to a wider range of Hindu and Buddhist sacred centres in India, Nepal and elsewhere, demonstrating its comparative potential.
Contribution of B.N. Saraswati
Baidyanath Saraswati expanded the sacred-complex approach through detailed studies of Kashi and Indian pilgrimage traditions. His works include Kashi: Myth and Reality of a Classical Cultural Tradition and later The Spectrum of the Sacred.
- Kashi as a civilizational microcosm
Saraswati studied Kashi not merely as a collection of temples but as an integrated cultural system involving:
- sacred geography;
- pilgrimage;
- ritual specialists;
- religious sects;
- local communities;
- textual traditions.
He was also a co-author, with L.P. Vidyarthi and Makhan Jha, of The Sacred Complex of Kashi: A Microcosm of Indian Civilization (1979).
- Beyond a purely Brahmanical interpretation
An important implication of Saraswati’s work was that sacred centres cannot be reduced simply to Brahmanical institutions.
Kashi incorporated:
- Brahman and non-Brahman specialists;
- ascetics;
- occupational communities;
- diverse sectarian traditions;
- local and textual religious forms.
Hence:
Sacred complex ≠ Homogeneous Brahmanical complex
Rather:
Multiple traditions → Interaction → Civilizational unity-in-diversity
- Sacred tradition as a dynamic process
Saraswati emphasized the coexistence of:
- textual tradition;
- oral tradition;
- local practice;
- pilgrimage;
- sacred territory.
This made the sacred complex a dynamic organization of traditions, rather than a static inventory of religious institutions.
- Pilgrimage as integration
Pilgrimage brings together individuals differing in:
- caste;
- region;
- language;
- sect;
- occupation.
The sacred centre therefore serves as a mechanism linking local communities with wider civilizational traditions.
Comparative contribution
| Makhan Jha | B.N. Saraswati |
| Extended sacred-complex studies to Janakpur and other centres | Deepened the analysis of Kashi and pilgrimage traditions |
| Strong regional/transnational dimension | Strong civilizational-symbolic dimension |
| Integrated anthropology with Indology and sociology | Emphasized plurality of sacred traditions |
| Studied sacred-centre networks | Examined sacred city as an integrated cultural system |
| Highlighted India–Nepal cultural connections | Highlighted coexistence of multiple ritual traditions |
Broader significance
Together, their studies demonstrated:
Local shrine → Sacred centre → Pilgrimage region → Indian civilization
They strengthened anthropology’s capacity to study complex civilizations, rather than limiting ethnography to small-scale tribal or village communities.
Critical assessment
The sacred-complex approach has limitations:
- It can overemphasize cultural integration and continuity.
- It may underplay:
- caste inequality;
- economic interests;
- gender;
- political power.
- Pilgrimage centres are not culturally harmonious wholes; competing priests, sects and communities may contest authority.
- Modern tourism, commercialization and state management require analysis beyond the traditional Great–Little Tradition framework.
Conclusion
Makhan Jha expanded Sacred Complex studies comparatively and regionally, while B.N. Saraswati deepened their civilizational, symbolic and pluralistic interpretation. Together with Vidyarthi, they established sacred-centre studies as an important Indian anthropological approach for understanding the interaction of local traditions, pilgrimage and wider civilization.
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UPSC Anthropology Optional 2018 — Paper II
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