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Home/Anthropology/Mains PYQ/2017/Paper I/Human Genetics & Human Biology
UPSC MainsAnthropology Optional Paper I 2017 15 Marks Model Answer Available

Biological and Socio-ecological Factors in Fertility and Mortality — 2017 Paper I

Question · 2017 · Paper I · 15 Marks

Describe the biological and socio-ecological factors affecting fertility and mortality.

Model Answer

VAID ICS

Approach

  • Demand of Question:Explain fertility and mortality as biocultural outcomes shaped jointly by biological capacity and social-ecological conditions.
  • Structuring the Response:Define fertility/fecundity and mortality; organise fertility factors and mortality factors separately; use Davis-Blake, Bongaarts and epidemiological transition as analytical anchors.
  • Key Dimensions to Cover:Fecundity versus fertility; age, postpartum amenorrhoea, nutrition, disease, contraception, marriage and education; Davis-Blake, Bongaarts; mortality, sanitation, nutrition, healthcare and Omran's epidemiological transition.

Model Answer

Introduction In demographic anthropology, fertility (the actual reproductive performance/number of births) and mortality (death rates) are the primary drivers of population dynamics. Neither is determined purely by nature; they are biocultural phenomena shaped by the intricate interaction of biological capacity and socio-ecological constraints.

Body

  1. Factors Affecting FertilityAnthropology distinguishes between fecundity(the biological potential to reproduce) and fertility (the actualized births).
  • Biological Factors:
    • Reproductive Span: Dictated by the age of menarche (onset of menstruation) and menopause.
    • Lactational Amenorrhea: Intense and prolonged breastfeeding suppresses ovulation naturally, acting as a biological spacing mechanism for births.
    • Nutrition and Health: Severe malnutrition or high disease loads (e.g., STIs like Chlamydia) reduce fecundity and increase rates of spontaneous abortion.
  • Socio-Ecological Factors (Bongaarts' Proximate Determinants):
    • John Bongaarts identified that socio-cultural variables affect fertility primarily through four proximate determinants:
      1. Proportion of women married/in sexual unions (age of marriage).
      2. Contraceptive use and efficiency.
      3. Incidence of induced abortion.
      4. Postpartum infecundability (cultural rules on sexual abstinence after birth).
    • Broader Social Factors: Female literacy, female workforce participation, and cultural "son preference" heavily dictate family planning choices.
  1. Factors Affecting Mortality
  • Biological Factors:
    • Age and Sex: Mortality follows a U-shaped curve (highest among infants and the elderly). Biologically, females generally have higher life expectancies and stronger immune responses than males.
    • Genetic Susceptibility: Inherited vulnerabilities to certain diseases (e.g., sickle cell trait protecting against malaria but causing anemia if homozygous).
  • Socio-Ecological Factors:
    • Omran’s Epidemiological Transition: As societies modernize, mortality shifts from being dominated by infectious diseases and famines (due to poor ecology/sanitation) to chronic, degenerative diseases (heart disease, cancer) associated with urban, sedentary lifestyles.
    • Public Health Infrastructure: Access to clean water, sanitation, vaccinations, and maternal healthcare drastically reduces infant and maternal mortality.
    • Socio-Economic Inequality: Poverty, food insecurity, occupational hazards, and exposure to political conflict disproportionately elevate mortality rates in marginalized groups.

Conclusion Fertility and mortality rates cannot be understood through biology or culture alone. They are profound biocultural indicators that reflect the complex interactions among human life history, ecological health burdens, technological advancement, and prevailing socio-economic inequalities.

2026 Genetic polymorphism and natural selection. 2026 Numerical chromosomal aberrations can be due to abnormalities in autosomes as well as sex chromosomes. Elaborate in terms of the effects these have on human body, giving suitable examples. 2026 Distinguishing features of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. 2026 How would you find out that a particular disease/disorder is inherited and, if so, in which manner? Elaborate with suitable examples.

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UPSC Anthropology Optional 2017 — Paper I

28 questions

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