5(a) Adaptive primate radiation
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.5 Characteristics of Primates > Evolutionary trend and primate taxonomy
Methods of Studying Human Growth — 2019 Paper I
Question · 2019 · Paper I · 15 Marks
Discuss the methods of studying human growth with their merits and demerits.
Model Answer
VAID ICSIntroduction
Human growth refers to measurable physical increase in the size of body and its parts from conception to maturity. According to A.H. Schultz, growth involves increase in body size and changes in body proportions during development. In biological anthropology, growth is studied to understand heredity, nutrition, health, disease, environment, maturation, secular trend and population variation. A child’s growth rate is one of the best indicators of health and nutrition; average height and weight of children also reflect the public health status of a population. The main methods of studying human growth are cross-sectional, longitudinal and mixedlongitudinal methods.
Cross-Sectional Method
Meaning
In this method, different individuals of different age groups are measured at one point of time. Each individual is measured only once.
For example, to study growth from 6 to 10 years, separate samples of children aged 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 years are measured. This method is useful for studying growth attained, also called distance growth, such as average height and weight at a particular age.
Uses
It is useful for constructing growth standards, comparing populations, school health surveys, nutritional assessment and estimating mean age of maturational events like menarche, tooth eruption or appearance of secondary sexual characters.
Merits and Demerits
Merits
Demerits
It is quick and less time-consuming. It does not study the same child over time. It is cost-effective. It cannot show individual growth pattern. Large samples can be studied easily. It does not accurately reveal timing of growth events. Useful for preparing height and weight standards. Growth velocity cannot be calculated reliably from crosssectional data. Useful when continuity is impossible, such as autopsy studies. Early and late maturers may be mixed together, hiding individual variation.
Longitudinal Method
Meaning
In this method, the same individuals are measured repeatedly at fixed intervals during their growth period. For example, the same child may be measured every year from birth to maturity, or from 6 to 18 years. It is the best method for studying actual growth pattern, growth velocity and timing of maturational changes.
Distance and Velocity Curves
Longitudinal data help prepare distance curves, showing size attained at each age, such as height at 6, 7 or 8 years. They also help prepare velocity curves, showing rate of growth, such as annual increase in height. This is especially useful for studying adolescent growth spurt and peak height velocity.
Uses
It is useful for studying growth tempo, adolescent spurt, menarche, puberty, dental eruption, skeletal maturity and effects of nutrition, disease, climate and seasonal variation. It is also useful for assessing effects of medical or nutritional intervention.
Merits and Demerits
Merits
Demerits
It gives actual growth pattern of the same individual. It is expensive. It gives both distance and velocity data. It is time-consuming and difficult to organise. Best method for studying growth velocity. Many subjects may drop out due to migration or other reasons. It identifies early, average and late maturers. Sample size is usually smaller. It helps study effects of nutrition, disease and environment on growth. Analysis and interpretation of long-term data are complex.
Mixed-Longitudinal Method
Meaning
Mixed-longitudinal method combines the features of cross-sectional and longitudinal methods. Different age groups are followed for a limited period, and some children may enter or leave the study during the research. For example, children aged 6, 8 and 10 years may be followed for 2–3 years. This method is used when it is not possible to follow the same group from birth to maturity.
Uses
It provides information on both attained growth and growth velocity within a shorter time. It is especially useful in field situations where long-term follow-up is difficult.
Merits and Demerits
Merits
Demerits
It is cheaper than pure longitudinal study. It is less accurate than full longitudinal study. It saves time and effort. Some cohort differences may remain. It provides both distance and velocity data with reasonable accuracy. Special statistical techniques are needed. It covers a wider age range in shorter time. Irregular entry and dropout of subjects may affect results. It is practical for anthropological field studies. Data organisation and interpretation are more difficult than cross-sectional study.
Supporting Techniques
Anthropometry
Measurements like height, weight, sitting height, head circumference, chest circumference, limb length, skinfold thickness and BMI are taken to assess physical growth.
Skeletal age
X-ray of hand and wrist is used to assess bone maturity.
Dental age
Tooth eruption and calcification help assess growth and maturity in children.
Sexual maturity indicators
Menarche in girls, pubic hair, breast development, voice change and other secondary sexual characters help study adolescent growth.
Anthropological Significance
Growth studies help anthropologists understand the role of heredity, nutrition, disease, socioeconomic status, climate, ecology and culture in human development. They are useful for studying tribal health, child malnutrition, obesity, secular trend, adolescent maturity and population differences. In India, growth studies are especially important because caste, tribe, region, poverty, endogamy, nutrition and ecological variation influence child growth and maturation.
Conclusion
Cross-sectional method is useful for quick population comparison and growth standards. Longitudinal method is best for studying actual growth pattern and velocity. Mixed-longitudinal method is a practical compromise between the two. Thus, no single method is complete. A good anthropological study of human growth should combine proper sampling, repeated measurements, anthropometry, maturity indicators and socioeconomic data.
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UPSC Anthropology Optional 2019 — Paper I
28 questionsSyllabus: Paper I > 5. Religion > Anthropological approaches to the study of religion
5(d) Anthropological inputs in facial reconstruction
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 12. Applications of Anthropology > Forensic Anthropology > Reconstruction
Syllabus: Paper I > 12. Applications of Anthropology > Applied human genetics
Syllabus: Paper I > 2.2 The Nature of Society > Social stratification
Syllabus: Paper I > 11.3 Biological and socio-ecological factors influencing fecundity and fertility
Syllabus: Paper I > 9.7 Concepts and methods of Ecological Anthropology > High altitude adaptation
1(d) Cultural Materialism
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 6. Anthropological Theories > Cultural Materialism
1(b) Cultural Relativism
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 2.1 The Nature of Culture > Ethnocentrism vis-a-vis Cultural Relativism
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.5 Characteristics of Primates > Skeletal changes due to erect posture
5(e) Genetico-environmental factors affecting human growth
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 10. Human growth and development > Factors affecting growth and development
5(b) Implications of mutation in evolution
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.7 The biological basis of life > Mutation
Syllabus: Paper I > 3. Economic Organization > Impact of globalization on indigenous economies
Syllabus: Paper I > 9.5 Race and racism > Racial criteria and biological basis of racial classification
Syllabus: Paper I > 7. Culture, language and communication > Language and culture
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.8(b) Cultural Evolution: broad outlines of prehistoric cultures > Megalithic
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.8(b) Cultural Evolution: broad outlines of prehistoric cultures > Mesolithic
Syllabus: Paper I > 10. Human growth and development > Methodologies for growth studies
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.6 Phylogenetic status, characteristics and distribution > Neanderthal Man
5(c) Olduvai Gorge
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.6 Phylogenetic status, characteristics and distribution > East African hominid sites
Syllabus: Paper I > 8.3 Research Methods: Tools of data collection > Observation
1(c) Pastoralism in India
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 3. Economic Organization > Modes of subsistence > Pastoralism
Syllabus: Paper I > 8.2 Research Methods > Distinction between technique, method and methodology
Syllabus: Paper I > 2.5 Kinship > Descent theory and alliance theory
1(e) Relative Dating Methods
10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper I > 1.8(a) Chronology: relative and absolute dating methods
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Syllabus: Paper I > 1.8(b) Cultural Evolution: broad outlines of prehistoric cultures > Upper Palaeolithic
6(a) Examine critically the contributions of Victor Turner and Clifford Geertz in anthropology.
20 Marks
Syllabus: Paper I > 6. Anthropological Theories > Symbolic and Interpretive Anthropology