VAID'S ICS – Best UPSC Anthropology Coaching in Delhi Since 1985

Comprehensive Classroom Course · Admissions openRegister now
+91 93113 37737
  • +91-93113 37737, +91-99999 46748
  • 73(FF), Old Rajender Nagar Market, Delhi - 110060
  • MON to SUN 9.00 am - 6.00 pm
Facebook Youtube Instagram
Menu
Enquire Now
Home/Anthropology/Mains PYQ/2014/Paper II/Prehistoric Archaeology
UPSC MainsAnthropology Optional Paper II 2014 20 Marks Model Answer Available

Harappan Religion and Continuity into Later Hinduism — 2014 Paper II

Question · 2014 · Paper II · 20 Marks

Describe what is known of Harappan Religion. Have some of its elements continued into later Hinduism ? Discuss.

Model Answer

VAID ICS

Approach

  • Demand of Question: Reconstruct the probable religious beliefs and practices of the Harappans from archaeological evidence and critically assess possible continuities with later Hinduism.
  • Structuring the Response: Discuss archaeological indicators of religion first, then examine claimed continuities while emphasizing the limitations of interpretation.
  • Key Dimensions to Cover: Great Bath, seals, figurines, sacred trees and animals, fire altars, burials, proto-Shiva debate, fertility symbolism, ritual bathing and evidentiary limitations.

Model Answer

Introduction: Knowledge of Harappan religion is derived almost entirely from archaeological remains, because the Indus script remains undeciphered. Hence, interpretations of Harappan beliefs are necessarily tentative. Archaeologists have inferred religious practices from seals, figurines, structures, burials and ritual installations.

Evidence concerning Harappan religion

  1. Ritual bathing

The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is the most striking structure with possible ritual significance.

Its:

  • careful waterproofing;
  • surrounding rooms;
  • controlled water supply and drainage

suggest that bathing may have possessed a ceremonial or purificatory function.

  1. Female figurines and fertility symbolism

Numerous terracotta female figurines have sometimes been interpreted as representations of a Mother Goddess or fertility cult.

However, this interpretation is not certain because figurines could also have been:

  • toys;
  • domestic objects;
  • representations of ordinary women.

Therefore:

Female figurine ≠ automatically Mother Goddess

  1. The so-called ‘Pashupati’ seal

A famous Mohenjo-daro seal depicts a horned figure seated in a posture sometimes interpreted as yogic and surrounded by animals.

John Marshall suggested a possible prototype of Shiva-Pashupati.

The interpretation is based on:

  • horned headgear;
  • association with animals;
  • seated posture.

However, identifying the figure directly with Shiva remains speculative.

  1. Tree worship

Seals depict trees, particularly forms interpreted as the pipal, in association with human and supernatural figures.

This suggests possible:

  • tree veneration;
  • fertility symbolism;
  • sacred vegetation.
  1. Animal symbolism

Animals prominently represented include:

  • bull;
  • elephant;
  • rhinoceros;
  • tiger;
  • buffalo;
  • the so-called unicorn.

Some may have possessed ritual or symbolic significance, although their exact meaning remains unknown.

  1. Fire-related ritual

Structures interpreted as fire altars have been reported particularly from sites such as Kalibangan.

If correctly identified, these may indicate organized ritual involving fire. Their precise religious meaning, however, remains debated.

  1. Amulets and symbols

Harappan material culture contains:

  • amulets;
  • figurines;
  • seal motifs;
  • swastika-like designs.

These may indicate beliefs connected with protection, identity or ritual symbolism.

  1. Treatment of the dead

Harappan cemeteries reveal formal burial practices with pottery and occasional grave goods.

These suggest socially prescribed mortuary customs, though clear evidence of elaborate beliefs concerning an afterlife is limited.

Possible continuities into later Hinduism

Several similarities have encouraged scholars to suggest cultural continuity.

Harappan feature Possible later parallel
Great Bath Ritual purification and sacred bathing
Horned seated figure Shiva/Pashupati traditions
Female figurines Goddess and fertility worship
Pipal symbolism Sacred-tree worship
Animal motifs Sacred animals and divine associations
Fire installations Ritual use of fire
Swastika-like motifs Auspicious Hindu symbol

Ritual bathing remains particularly important in Hinduism through:

  • sacred rivers;
  • temple tanks;
  • pilgrimage bathing.

Similarly, the pipal tree, fertility cults and animal symbolism occupy significant positions in later Indian religious traditions.

Critical assessment of continuity

Direct continuity cannot be established confidently because:

  • the Harappan script remains undeciphered;
  • there is a substantial chronological gap;
  • similar religious symbols may have different meanings;
  • later Hinduism itself developed through interaction among several cultural traditions.

Thus, the Harappan evidence should not simply be read backward through later Hindu practices.

Conclusion

Harappan religion probably included ritual purification, fertility symbolism, sacred animals and trees, mortuary practices and possibly fire rituals. Certain features resemble later Hindu traditions, but these represent possible cultural continuities rather than proven direct survivals. The archaeological evidence supports cautious comparison, not categorical identification.

2026 Write a detailed note on the characteristic features, chronology, geographical distribution, tool types and lifeways of Magdalenian cultural tradition of Europe. 2026 What are the evidences available regarding crops and domesticated animals of Indus Valley Civilization? What are the views of the scholars regarding Indus script? 2026 Discuss with examples, how general comparative analogy has been used in ethnoarchaeological studies in India. 2026 Make a critical appraisal of the mesolithic culture of Ganga basin with reference to artifacts, faunal and human skeletal remains excavated from different sites.

Want feedback on your answer?

Join the Anthropology workshop or get structured answer-writing guidance from VAID ICS.

Join Workshop Contact VAID ICS

UPSC Anthropology Optional 2014 — Paper II

28 questions

5(c) Forest policy and tribes

10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 6.3 Development of forest policy and tribals
2014Paper IITribal Problems & DisplacementModel answer available

1(c) Great tradition and Little tradition

10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 5.3 Indigenous and exogenous processes of socio-cultural change > Interplay of little and great traditions
2014Paper IIVillage India, Urbanisation & Social ChangeModel answer available

5(e) Impact of Christianity on tribes

10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 8.1 Impact of Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and other religions on tribal societies > Christianity
2014Paper IIEthnicity, Tribal Movements & Social ChangeModel answer available

1(d) Major linguistic divisions of India

10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 2. Demographic profile of India > Linguistic elements and their distribution
2014Paper IIIndian Society, Caste & CivilizationModel answer available

1(a) Neolithic cultures of N-E India

10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 1.1 Evolution of Indian Culture and Civilization > Neolithic > North-East India
2014Paper IIPrehistoric ArchaeologyModel answer available

5(d) The concept of PTG

10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 9.1 The concept of PTGs (Primitive Tribal Groups) > Distribution and special programmes
2014Paper IITribal Development, Policy & SafeguardsModel answer available

1(b) Tribe-Caste continuum

10 Marks150 words
Syllabus: Paper II > 3.2 Caste system in India > Tribe-caste continuum
2014Paper IIIndian Society, Caste & CivilizationModel answer available